Battery chemistry covers everything from the fundamental building blocks of a cell – electrodes, electrolyte, separator – through to the many chemistries in use today, from established lithium-ion variants like LFP and NMC to alternatives such as sodium-ion, solid state and flow batteries. Use the Full Index below to browse every page in this section, organised by hierarchy, or jump straight to the A-Z list further down.
First-cycle irreversible capacity loss is real and unavoidable. During the first charge, the anode SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) forms and consumes lithium that is never recovered. This is not a defect — it is a fundamental feature of lithium-ion electrochemistry. It is why formation cycling is a manufacturing step, and why initial coulombic efficiency appears in cell datasheets.
Where to Start
New to battery chemistry? This is a suggested reading order through the core material. For the complete list of every page in this section, see the Full Index below.
- Cell Stack – the whole picture: how a cell is built up from its component layers.
- Anode and Cathode – the two electrodes every cell is built around.
- Electrolyte and Separator – how ions move between the electrodes, and what keeps them apart.
- Primary Cell vs Secondary Cell – the most basic split in the field: disposable vs rechargeable.
- Lithium Ion Chemistry – the dominant chemistry today, and the umbrella for LFP, NMC, NCA, LCO and more.
- Sodium-Ion Battery and Solid State Battery – the two alternative chemistries furthest along in commercialisation.
- Battery Chemistry Roadmap – where the field is heading next.
Full Index
A complete, always up to date index of every page in the Chemistry section, organised by hierarchy. Click any heading to expand it.
There are so many battery chemistries that we have listed them A to Z and included abbreviations where appropriate so that you can find them. As you will see we have also introduced types of battery such as Flow Battery, Solid State etc to make it a more useful list:
All-Iron Flow Battery
A redox flow battery using iron in different oxidation states on both sides of the cell, giving very low material cost since only one element is needed.
Aluminium Air
High energy density and low cost. The aluminium anode and air cathode along with an aqueous electrolyte, generate power through the oxidation of aluminium by oxygen from the air. However, a major issue is the corrosion of the aluminium anode thus reducing capacity and compromising calendar life.
Aluminium Ion
The aluminium metal anode can exchange three electrons during the electrochemical process, hence can deliver a high theoretically high volumetric and gravimetric capacity. However, anode, cathode and electrolyte development is required before this type of cell can exploit the high energy density with a stability over a lifetime of cycles.
Ammonium-Ion
A non-metallic charge carrier in which NH₄⁺ ions intercalate between electrode layers, functioning analogously to lithium or sodium ions. Attractive for its low cost, environmental friendliness, and aqueous electrolyte compatibility. Electrode material choice is constrained by the relatively large ionic radius of NH₄⁺ and sluggish redox kinetics. Technology remains at the research stage.
Aqueous Proton Battery
An emerging battery chemistry that stores charge by intercalating protons (H+) rather than metal ions, typically paired with an organic electrode.
Calcium-Air Battery
A metal-air chemistry using a calcium anode, at an earlier stage of development than lithium- or zinc-air equivalents.
Calcium Ion
Calcium ion battery (CIB) chemistry is viewed as greener with a more resource-secure future. Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust (accounting for approximately 41,500 ppm, compared to lithium’s 200 ppm) and benefits from a well-established global supply chain through the limestone and cement industries.
Dual-Carbon Battery
A battery in which both electrodes are carbon-based, with anions intercalating into one and cations into the other during cycling.
Dual Ion
A battery technology that offers a low cost solution for grid based storage. Cations and anions both participate in the intercalation and deintercalation processes using graphite as both cathode and anode material.
Flow Battery
Essentially have two chemical components that pass through a reaction chamber where they are separated by a membrane. A significant benefit is that the charged fluids can be stored in containers, significantly extending the energy storage capacity.
Fluoride Ion
Seen as a replacement for lithium and possibly the post-lithium technology with “up to 7x the Wh/kg” of current Lithium technology.
Graphene Aluminium Ion
Graphene cathode and aluminium anode, high charge rate battery technology.
Graphite
The Anode is the negative or reducing electrode that releases electrons to the external circuit and oxidizes during and electrochemical reaction. In a lithium ion cell the anode is commonly graphite or graphite and silicon.
Hard Carbon
Most focus is on the use of hard carbon anodes in Sodium-ion Batteries.
Hydrogen–Bromine Flow Battery
A hybrid regenerative flow system engineered for multi-megawatt, long-duration grid balancing. The architecture combines a proton-exchange membrane (such as reinforced perfluorosulfonic acid, Nafion) separating a gaseous hydrogen negative electrode from a circulating aqueous hydrobromic acid / liquid bromine (HBr/Br2) positive catholyte.
Iron Air
A reversible rust process where the oxygen from the air rusts the iron during discharge and then during charging the iron oxide is converted back into iron and oxygen is released.
Iron-Chromium Flow Battery
One of the earliest redox flow battery chemistries, using Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ and Cr²⁺/Cr³⁺ redox couples dissolved in aqueous hydrochloric acid. During charge, iron is oxidised at the positive electrode while chromium is reduced at the negative; discharge reverses both. Low electrolyte cost makes it attractive for large-scale stationary storage, though hydrogen evolution at the chromium electrode and mixed-acid electrolyte management remain engineering challenges.
LCO => Lithium Cobalt Oxide
Lead Acid
The Lead Acid Battery is a battery with electrodes of lead oxide and metallic lead that are separated by an electrolyte of sulfuric acid. Energy density 40-60 Wh/kg.
LFP => Lithium Iron Phosphate
Liquid Metal Battery
A high-temperature, self-segregating three-liquid-layer battery designed specifically for stationary, long-duration energy storage (LDES). Operating between 450°C and 500°C, the cell exploits immiscibility and density stratification: a low-density liquid calcium-alloy negative electrode floats on a molten halide salt electrolyte (CaCl2–LiCl or CaCl2–CaF2), which rests on a dense molten antimony positive electrode.
LiS => Lithium Sulfur
Lithium Air
Promised as the beyond lithium ion technology with unrivaled energy density. However, even though a huge amount of scientific effort has gone into understanding the chemistry and reactions it is not mature enough to develop into a workable battery at this stage. If anything the focus has moved to solid state lithium ion batteries.
Lithium–Carbon Monofluoride
A high-energy-density primary (non-rechargeable) electrochemistry comprising a lithium metal anode and a fluorinated carbon ((CFx)n, where x ~ 0.9 – 1.1) cathode operating in an organic carbonate or ether electrolyte with dissolved LiBF4 or LiPF6.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide
A primary cathode active material that was discovered in 1980 by John B. Goodenough and Koichi Mizushima, and later commercialised by Sony in 1991.
Lithium Hydrogen Gas
The Lithium-Hydrogen Gas battery cell operates through redox of H2/H+ on the cathode and Li/Li+ on the anode. The universal properties of the H2 cathode enable the battery to demonstrate attractive electrochemical performance, including high theoretical specific energy up to 2825 Wh kg−1.
Lithium Ion
In a rechargeable lithium ion battery lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Current production cells have an energy density ~250 to 300Wh/kg.
Lithium-Ion Capacitor
A hybrid energy storage device combining a lithium-ion battery electrode with a capacitor electrode, giving higher energy density than a supercapacitor with faster power delivery than a battery.
Lithium Iron Phosphate
Lithium Iron Phosphate abbreviated as LFP is a lithium ion cathode material with graphite used as the anode. This cell chemistry is typically lower energy density than NMC or NCA, but is also seen as being safer.
Lithium Manganese Dioxide
A primary (non-rechargeable) lithium cell, abbreviated Li-MnO₂, with a lithium metal anode and a manganese dioxide cathode. Nominal voltage 3 V, energy density 200–280 Wh/kg, shelf life ten or more years. Widely used in consumer electronics — most CR2032 coin cells are this chemistry — as well as cameras, medical devices, and automotive key fobs.
Lithium Manganese Iron Phosphate
Abbreviated as LMFP, Lithium Manganese Iron Phosphate brings a lot of the advantages of LFP and improves on the energy density.
Lithium Manganese Oxide
Abbreviated as LMO and sometimes written as Li-manganese or lithium manganate. LMO is a lithium-ion cathode material that uses manganese as the transition metal rather than cobalt or nickel. First described as a cathode material in the early 1980s and commercialised from around 1996, it remains relevant today, particularly in high-power and blended-cathode applications.
Lithium Manganese Rich (LMR) ≡ Lithium Rich Manganese (LRM)
Lithium Metal Anode
Widely regarded that the next-generation battery chemistry will use a lithium metal anode. Thanks to their intrinsically high energy density, however, these batteries have a trade-off between energy density and cycle life.
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Aluminium Oxide
A quaternary lithium-ion cathode material that represents the current frontier of high-nickel cathode development. It extends the NMC family by introducing aluminium as a fourth transition metal dopant, deliberately combining the high energy density of nickel-rich chemistry with the structural stabilisation benefits that aluminium brings from the NCA lineage.
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxides
A family of mixed metal oxides of lithium, nickel, manganese and cobalt. Nickel is known for its high specific energy, but poor stability. Manganese has low specific energy but offers the ability to form spinel structures that allow low internal resistance.
Lithium Nickel Oxide
Abbreviated as LNO, this is the pure-nickel end member of the layered oxide cathode family, the same structural family as LCO. It was first synthesised in 1954 and studied through the 1980s and 1990s as a lower-cost, cobalt-free alternative to LCO, offering a higher theoretical capacity at a similar voltage.
Lithium Rich Manganese
High specific capacity because of both cationic and anionic redox activity and are expected to be developed and applied as cathode materials for a new generation of high-energy density lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium Sulfur
Perhaps the most mature of the beyond Li-ion’ battery chemistries with a potential energy density of >600Wh/kg. Also with the potential for substantially reduced costs and improved safety. However, a number of challenges mean that cycle life has been poor. Hence the potential attracts attention and much needed research at the fundamental chemistry stage.
Lithium Thionyl Chloride
A primary lithium cell, abbreviated LiSOCl₂, in which thionyl chloride (SOCl₂) serves as both the liquid cathode and electrolyte, with a lithium metal anode and carbon current collector. Nominal voltage 3.6 V, energy density up to 710 Wh/kg — the highest of any primary chemistry — and self-discharge below 1% per year enabling service lifetimes of 10–20 years. Used in smart metering, industrial IoT, military equipment, and medical implants.
Lithium Titanium Oxide (LTO)
Lithium Titanium Oxide (Li4Ti5O12) material. This anode material provides the battery with exceptional lifespan, rapid charging capabilities, and excellent performance in extreme temperatures.
LMB => Liquid Metal Battery
LMFP => Lithium Manganese Iron Phosphate
LMO => Lithium Manganese Oxide
LNO => Lithium Nickel Oxide
LTO => Lithium Titanium Oxide
Magnesium-Air Battery
Metal-air chemistry using a magnesium anode, offering high theoretical energy density from a multivalent metal.
Magnesium-Ion
Function very similar to lithium-ion batteries, comparable energy density to lithium-ion along with potential for improvement as there are double the electrons for every individual magnesium ion. Magnesium is more abundant than lithium. However, there are a lot more possible side reactions with magnesium-ion.
Manganese Dioxide-Zinc
The primary alkaline battery cell.
Mercury Oxide
A primary cell that uses mercuric oxide and zinc electrodes in an alkaline electrolyte.
NaB => Sodium Ion
NCA => Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide
NCM => Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxides
NCMA => Nickel Cobalt Manganese Aluminium Oxide
Nickel Cadmium
Rechargeable battery that uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Today it is the technology of choice for several highly demanding industrial applications. This is due to:
- superior resistance to mechanical and electrical stress
- able to operate at extreme temperatures and a frequently cycling temperature
Nickel Hydrogen
This has the positive electrode of nickel oxide from the nickel-cadmium cell, and a hydrogen negative electrode from the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. The energy density is low at ~60Wh/kg, cost high, but cycle life can be ~200,000 and hence find a niche application in space craft.
Nickel Iron
The NiFe battery, nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide positive plates and iron negative plates, with an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. A very low gravimetric energy density of 19 to 25Wh/kg.
Nickel Metal Hydride
The Nickel Metal Hydride battery has a nickel-hydroxide cathode, a metal hydride (a variety of metal alloys are used) anode, and aqueous potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This is a rechargeable battery chemistry that has been superseded by lithium ion, but has seen a lot of use in Toyota hybrids. Energy density 40-110 Wh/kg at cell level.
Nickel Zinc Battery
The Nickel Zinc battery consists of a Nickel Oxide cathode and a Zinc anode in a small amount of potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
NiFe => Nickel Iron
NiMh => Nickel Metal Hydride
NMC => Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxides
NMCA => Nickel Cobalt Manganese Aluminium Oxide
Organic Radical Battery
A rechargeable battery using stable organic radical polymers, rather than metal oxides, as the active electrode material.
PbA => Lead Acid
PBA => Prussian Blue Analogues
Polysulfide Bromide
Type of regenerative fuel cell involving a reversible electrochemical reaction.
Potassium-Air Battery
A metal-air chemistry using a potassium anode, part of the wider family of alkali-metal-air batteries.
Potassium Ion
Potential to be a low cost storage based chemistry, but large large change of ~60% of graphite with the insertion of K ions puts high strain on lattice and so limits cycling. Technology development is behind that of Lithium and Sodium Ion based batteries.
Prussian Blue Analogues
Possess an open 3D framework with large channels that allow for “zero-strain” intercalation of sodium ions, suitable for long-cycle life applications.
Rechargeable Alkaline Manganese (RAM) Battery
A rechargeable variant of the standard zinc/manganese-dioxide alkaline cell chemistry.
Seawater Battery
Uses dissolved sodium ions in natural or synthetic seawater as the electrolyte, separated from a sodium metal (or carbon) anode by a NASICON-type solid ceramic membrane. The cathode reacts directly with surrounding seawater, giving effectively unlimited catholyte. Proposed for marine and subsea energy storage where the electrolyte is free and abundant; ceramic membrane durability and anode stability remain development challenges.
Semi-Solid Flow Battery
Flow battery that circulates a flowable slurry of solid intercalation particles rather than dissolving the redox-active species directly in the electrolyte.
Semi-Solid State
With the jump to true solid state being difficult we need to consider Semi-Solid State. This is where they use some liquid electrolyte to overcome the interface issues with the true solid state battery.
Silicon
Silicon as an additive to graphite anodes have been seen as a drop-in to increase the efficiency and energy storage capacity of lithium-ion batteries. However, the downsides have been increased expansion and hence material degradation reducing cycle life.
Silver Calcium
Advanced type of lead-acid chemistry (lead-calcium-silver).
Silver Oxide
Primary cell chemistry.
Silver Vanadium Oxide (SVO)
Cathode material used in the batteries of implantable medical devices, valued for reliability over long, low-rate discharge.
Silver Zinc
The silver-zinc (AgZn) battery pairs a silver oxide cathode with a zinc anode in a concentrated potassium hydroxide electrolyte. Its main claim to fame is specific energy: cell for cell, it is still among the highest of any commercially available battery chemistry, rechargeable or otherwise.
Sodium-Air Battery
The sodium equivalent of a lithium-air battery, using a sodium metal anode and an oxygen cathode.
Sodium Ion
Analogous to the lithium-ion battery but using sodium ions (Na+) as the charge carriers. The working of the sodium based chemistry and cell construction are almost identical with those of the commercially widespread lithium-ion battery types, but sodium compounds are used instead of lithium compounds.
Sodium-Ion Capacitor
A hybrid energy storage device pairing a sodium-ion battery electrode with a capacitor electrode.
Sodium Metal Battery
Battery using a sodium metal anode rather than a sodium-ion intercalation anode, the sodium equivalent of a lithium metal battery.
Sodium-Nickel-Chloride Molten Salt Battery
Also known as the Zebra Battery.
Sodium Sulfur
Uses molten sodium as the anode, molten sulfur in a carbon host as the cathode and a ceramic electrolyte.
Solid-State
Any battery technology that uses solid electrodes and solid electrolyte. This offers potential improvements in energy density and safety, but has very significant challenges with cycling, manufacturing and durability of the solid sandwich.
Thermal (Molten Salt Reserve) Battery
Single-use battery chemistry that is activated on demand by melting an internal salt electrolyte, used in munitions and aerospace applications requiring long shelf life.
Titanium Niobium Oxide (TNO)
A fast-charging anode material positioned between graphite and lithium titanate in voltage and rate performance.
Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
Abbreviated VRFB. Uses vanadium ions in different oxidation states — V²⁺/V³⁺ in the negative electrolyte and V⁴⁺/V⁵⁺ in the positive — dissolved in sulfuric acid. Because both half-cells use the same element, cross-contamination through the membrane causes no permanent capacity loss and the electrolyte is fully regenerable. Energy density 15–25 Wh/kg at system level, round-trip efficiency 70–80%, calendar life >20 years. The most widely deployed flow battery chemistry for grid-scale stationary storage.
Zinc Air
Perhaps the most promising metal-air battery technology. Typically it has a zinc anode, an oxygen permeable cathode, a separator, and a caustic alkaline electrolyte. Promising low cost, high stability and high energy density.
Zinc Bromide
Promising flow battery technology.
Zinc Carbon
A primary battery chemistry, commonly used in batteries for radios, toys and household goods.
Zinc Cerium
A redox flow battery.
Zinc-Iodine Flow Battery
A flow battery chemistry pairing a zinc electrode with an iodine/iodide redox couple.
Zinc Ion
Rechargeable energy storage systems featuring a metallic zinc anode, a Zn-intercalating cathode (e.g., MnO2, V2O5), and a water-based electrolyte. They offer high safety, low cost, and environmental friendliness, storing energy by moving ions between electrodes.
Zinc-Ion Capacitor
Hybrid energy storage device combining a zinc-ion battery electrode with a capacitor electrode.
Zinc-Iron Flow Battery
A hybrid flow battery combining a zinc-plating anode with an iron-based redox cathode.
Zinc-Nickel Flow Battery
Hybrid flow battery combining a zinc-plating anode with a nickel-based redox cathode, offering a higher cell voltage than zinc-bromine flow batteries.
Zinc Slurry Flow Battery
Flow battery that circulates zinc nanoparticles dispersed in a stabilizing ligand-based slurry, aiming for durable long-duration zinc-based energy storage.
References
- Jianmin Ma et al, “The 2021 battery technology roadmap”, 2021 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 54 183001
- P Butler, P Eidler, P Grimes, S Klassen and R Miles, Zinc/Bromine Batteries, Sandia Labs
See also: CATL and Lithium-Air, Testing