How does the carbon footprint change with cell chemistry? With the EU Battery Passport and India’s Battery Pack Aadhaar Number we are looking for all the levers we can use to improve our battery pack designs.
The carbon footprint of manufacturing a battery cell varies significantly, with estimates ranging broadly from 10 to 394 kg CO2-equivalent per kilowatt-hour (kg CO2-eq/kWh). These emissions are heavily influenced by the region of production and the carbon intensity of its local electricity grid; for example, current average footprints are around 69 kg CO2-eq/kWh in the European Union and 87 kg CO2-eq/kWh in China.
However, the battery’s chemistry—specifically its cathode composition—is one of the most critical determinants of its carbon footprint. The variation among chemistries largely depends on the types of raw materials extracted, the energy required to process them, and the specific energy density (energy capacity per unit of weight) of the final cell:
- NMC (Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt) and NCA (Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum): These chemistries offer excellent high energy density but incur high environmental costs due to the intensive mining and refining required for nickel and cobalt. High-nickel variants like NMC811 generally produce between 59 and 115 kg CO2-eq/kWh. While NMC and NCA batteries generate a higher carbon footprint per kilogram of battery weight, their superior energy density means fewer kilograms are needed to store a given amount of energy, which helps offset their overall climate impact when measured per kilowatt-hour.
- LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate): LFP batteries are produced from more abundant, lower-impact materials, entirely avoiding the carbon-intensive extraction of nickel and cobalt. The emissions for LFP cells typically range from 31 to 71 kg CO2-eq/kWh. While LFP cell manufacturing is inherently less carbon-intensive—estimated to have a 35% lower climate impact than NMC811 when using average global materials—LFP cells possess a lower energy density. Because they require more physical packaging materials (like aluminum housing and copper collectors) to reach the same capacity as an NMC battery, some of LFP’s environmental advantage is diminished at the pack level.
- LFMP (Lithium Iron Manganese Phosphate): By introducing manganese oxide to the LFP chemistry, manufacturers can increase the battery’s specific energy by up to 25% while maintaining a relatively low footprint, generating an estimated 45 to 66 kg CO2-eq/kWh.
- Sodium-Ion Batteries (SIB): These batteries rely on abundant feedstocks and eliminate the need for lithium extraction entirely, which reduces their environmental footprint to an estimated 40 to 70 kg CO2-eq/kWh.
- Solid-State Batteries (ASSB): Replacing liquid electrolytes with solid ceramics, sulfides, or polymers yields a footprint currently estimated between 58 and 67 kg CO2-eq/kWh. While the complex manufacturing of high-purity solid electrolytes can be initially energy-intensive, the extreme energy density of solid-state batteries generally allows them to outperform traditional lithium-ion chemistries in total climate impact per kWh.
| Battery Chemistry | Energy Density (Wh/kg) | GHG Intensity (kg CO2e/kWh) | Primary GHG Driver |
|---|---|---|---|
| NMC111 | 150 – 180 | 77 – 85 | High Cobalt Refining |
| NMC622 | 220 – 240 | 80 – 90 | Nickel/Cobalt Sourcing |
| NMC811 | 250 – 300 | 59 – 115 | Nickel Mining/Processing |
| NCA | 250 – 300 | 59 – 82 | Aluminum/Nickel Intensity |
| LFP | 140 – 170 | 31 – 71 | Material Mass/Assembly |
| LFMP | 160 – 190 | 45 – 55 | Manganese Processing |
| Sodium-Ion | 120 – 160 | 40 – 70 | Abundant Feedstock |
This footprint is highly dependent on the manufacturing location and grid mix, with average values estimated at 57 kg CO2e/kWh in Europe, 67 kg CO2e/kWh in the US and South Korea, and between 90 and 96 kg CO2e/kWh in China.
This post has been built based on the support of and sponsorship from: illumion, Custom Power, Quarto Technical Services, Eatron Technologies and About:Energy
References
- Ankathi, S.K.; Bouchard, J.; He, X. Beyond Tailpipe Emissions: Life Cycle Assessment Unravels Battery’s Carbon Footprint in Electric Vehicles. World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 245.
- The Value Chain between Economy and Ecology, Battery-News.de
- Llamas-Orozco JA, Meng F, Walker GS, Abdul-Manan AFN, MacLean HL, Posen ID, McKechnie J. Estimating the environmental impacts of global lithium-ion battery supply chain: A temporal, geographical, and technological perspective. PNAS Nexus. 2023 Nov 28;2(11)
- Analyzing Potential Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions from Plug-In Electric Vehicles: Report for CRC Project, “Carbon Return on Investment for Electrified Vehicles”, NREL
- Peiseler L, Schenker V, Schatzmann K, Pfister S, Wood V, Schmidt T. Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials. Nat Commun. 2024 Nov 27;15(1):10301.
- R. PELL and J. J. LINDSAY, COMPARATIVE LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT STUDY OF SOLID STATE AND LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE APPLICATION IN EUROPE, Prepared for The European Federation for Transport and Environment 20th January 2022